Introduction to Economics –ECO401 VU. Economics is a social science devoted to the study of how people and societies get what they need and want. Or, in more formal language, economics is the study of how societies divide and use their resources to produce goods and services and of how those goods and services are then distributed and consumed.
A social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. b: economic theory, principles, or practices sound economics. 2: economic aspect or significance the economics of building a new stadium.10 May 2022
A standard definition of economics could describe it as: a social science directed at the satisfaction of needs and wants through the allocation of scarce resources which have alternative uses. We can go further to state that: economics is about the study of scarcity and choice.
In his landmark essay on the nature of economics, Lionel Robbins defined economics as. “the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses” (Robbins, 1935, p. 16).
comparative advantage, economic theory, first developed by 19th-century British economist David Ricardo, that attributed the cause and benefits of international trade to the differences in the relative opportunity costs (costs in terms of other goods given up) of producing the same commodities among countries.
Marxian economics is a school of economic thought based on the work of 19th-century economist and philosopher Karl Marx. Marxian economics, or Marxist economics, focuses on the role of labor in the development of an economy and is critical of the classical approach to wages and productivity developed by Adam Smith.
FA Walker defines Economics as a body of knowledge which relates to wealth. From the above definitions we can say that Economics is a study of how wealth is produced, distributed and exchanged for consumption.
Economics is not a natural science, i.e. it is not concerned with studying the physical world like chemistry, biology. Social sciences are connected with the study of people in society. It is not possible to conduct laboratory experiments, nor is it possible to fully unravel the process of human decision-making.
“Economics is the study of how we the people engage ourselves in production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a society.”
The term economics came from the Greek for oikos (house) and nomos (custom or law), hence "rules of the household.
Another definition is: “The science which studies human behavior as a relationship between
ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.”
Normative economics:
Normative economics is the branch of economics that incorporates value judgments about what the economy should be like or what particular policy actions should be recommended to achieve a desirable goal. Normative economics looks at the desirability of certain aspects of the economy. It underlies expressions of support for particular economic policies. Normative economics is known as statements of opinion which cannot be proved or disproved, and suggests what should be done to solve economic problems, i-e unemployment should be reduced. Normative economics discusses "what ought to be".
Examples:
1-A normative economic theory not only describes how money-supply growth affects inflation,
but it also provides instructions that what policy should be followed.
2- A normative economic theory not only describes how interest rate affects inflation but it also
provides guidance that what policy should be followed.
Positive economics:
Positive economics, by contrast, is the analysis of facts and behavior in an economy or “the
way things are.” Positive statements can be proved or disproved, and which concern how an
economy works, i-e unemployment is increasing in our economy. Positive economics is
sometimes defined as the economics of "what is"
Examples:
1- A positive economic theory might describe how money-supply growth affects inflation, but it
does not provide any instruction on what policy should be followed.
2- A positive economic theory might describe how interest rate affects inflation but it does not
provide any guidance on whether what policy should be followed.
We the people: includes firms, households and the government.
Goods are the things which are produced to be sold.
Services involve doing something for the customers but not producing goods.
Factors of production are inputs into the production process. They are the resources needed
to produce goods and services. The factors of production are:
• Land includes the land used for agriculture or industrial purposes as well as natural
resources taken from above or below the soil.
• Capital consists of durable producer goods (machines, plants etc.) that are in turn
used for production of other goods.
• Labor consists of the manpower used in the process of production.
• Entrepreneurship includes the managerial abilities that a person brings to the
organization. Entrepreneurs can be owners or managers of firms.
Scarcity does not mean that a good is rare; scarcity exists because economic resources are
unable to supply all the goods demanded. It is a pervasive condition of human existence that
exists because society has unlimited wants and needs, but limited resources used for their
satisfaction. In other words, while we all want a bunch of stuff, we can't have everything that
we want.
Rationing is a process by which we limit the supply or amount of some economic factor which
is scarcely available. It is the distribution or allocation of a limited commodity, usually
accomplished based on a standard or criterion. The two primary methods of rationing are
markets and governments. Rationing is needed due to the scarcity problem. Because wants
and needs are unlimited, but resources are limited, available commodities must be rationed
out to competing uses.
Introduction to Economics: ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
There are different types of economic systems prevailing in the world.
Dictatorship:
Dictatorship is a system in which economic decisions are taken by the dictator which may be
an individual or a group of selected people.
Command or planned economy:
A command or planned economy is a mode of economic organization in which the key
economic functions – for whom, what, how to produce are principally determined by
government directive. In a planned economy, a planning committee usually government or
some group determines the economy’s output of goods and services. They decide about the
optimal mix of resources in the economy. They also decide how the factor of production needs
to be employed to get optimal mix.
Free market/capitalist economy:
A free market/capitalist economy is a system in which the questions about what to produce,
how to produce and for whom to produce are decided primarily by the demand and supply
interactions in the market. In this economy what to produce is thereby determined by the
market price of each good and service in relation to the cost of producing each good and
service.
In a free economy the only goods and services produced are those whose price in the market
is at least equal to the producer’s cost of producing output. When a price greater than the cost
of producing that good or service prevails, producers are induced to increase the production. If
the product’s price falls below the cost of production, producers reduce supply.
Islamic economic system:
This system is based on Islamic values and Islamic rules i-e zakat, ushr, etc. Islam forbids
both the taking and giving of interest. Modern economists, too, have slowly begun to realize
the futility of interest. The Islamic economic principles if strictly followed would eliminate the
possibility of accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few and would ensure the greater
circulation of money as well as a wider distribution of wealth. Broadly speaking these
principles are (1) Zakat or compulsory alms giving (2) The Islamic law of inheritance which
splits the property of an individual into a number of shares given to his relations (3) The
forbiddance of interest which checks accumulation of wealth and this strikes at the root of
capitalism.
Pakistan case: A mixed economy
In Pakistan, there is mixed economic system. Resources are governed by both government
and individuals. Some resources are in the hand of government and some are in the hand of
public. Optimal mix of resources is decided by the price mechanism i-e by the market forces of
demand and supply. Pakistan economy thus consists of the characteristics of both planned
economy and free market economy. People are free to make their decisions. They can make
their properties. Government controls the Defense.
There are two sectors in the circular flow of goods & services. One is household sector and
the other is the business sector which includes firms. Households demands goods & services,
Firms supply goods & services. An exchange takes place in an economy. In monetary
economy, firms exchange goods & services for money. Firms’ demands factors of production
and households supply factors of production. Firms pay the payment in terms of wages, rent,
etc. This is circular flow of goods. On the other hand, household gives money to firms to
purchase the goods & services from firms, and firms’ gives money to households in return for
factors of production.
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Introduction to Economics: DISTINCTION BETWEEN MICRO & MACRO ECONOMICS
Micro Economics:
The branch of economics that studies the parts of the economy, especially such topics as
markets, prices, industries, demand, and supply. It can be thought of as the study of the
economic trees, as compared to macroeconomics, which is study of the entire economic
forest. Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies how individuals, households,
and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources typically in markets where goods or
services are being bought and sold. It
also examines how these decisions and behaviors affect
the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices, and how prices, in
turn, determine the supply and demand of goods and services.
Macro Economics:
The branch of economics that studies the entire economy, especially such topics as aggregate
production, unemployment, inflation, and business cycles. It can be thought of as the study of
the economic forest, as compared to microeconomics, which is study of the economic trees.
Macroeconomics, involves the "sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of
growth, inflation, and unemployment and with national economic policies relating to these
issues” and the effects of government actions (e.g., changing taxation levels) on them.
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Rhetorical analysis is the process of evaluating elements of a text and determining how those elements impact the success or failure of that argument. Almost every text makes an argument. Often rhetorical analyses address written arguments, but visual, oral, or other kinds of “texts” can also be analyzed.
Rhetorical analysis process[/caption]
Depending on the rhetorical analysis prompt, you may be asked to examine all three types of appeal, to focus on one or two of them, or to explore alternative types of evidence used to persuade the audience. Some prompts may ask for you to explicitly use the terms ethos, logos, and pathos, while others may ask for a subtler approach that avoids those terms.
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Area formula is defined as the total space taken up by a flat (2-D) surface or shape of an object. The space the shape takes up on the paper is called its Area.
